Title,Citation,Topic_area,Study_type,Study_evidence_rating,Outcome_effectiveness,Findings,Intervention_program,Topics,Target_population,Firm_characteristics,Geographic_setting,Original_publication_date,Original_publication_link "Framing and claiming: How information-framing affects expected social security claiming behavior","Brown, J. R., Kapteyn, A., & Mitchell, O. S. (2016). Framing and claiming: How information-framing affects expected social security claiming behavior. Journal of Risk and Insurance, 83(1), 139-162.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement, Behavioral Insights","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Public benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Public benefit receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the impact of different ways of framing retirement information on the age at which individuals intended to claim Social Security benefits. The authors randomly assigned people who had been employed for at least 10 years and had yet to claim Social Security benefits to receive different messages about claiming the benefits. Each message contained the same financial information, but the information was presented—or framed—in different ways. There were 10 different messages—9 treatment conditions and one control condition that presented neutral information. Each study participant received 6 of the 10 messages. The study found that, on average, those presented with the break-even treatment were more likely to indicate a younger intended age to receive benefits compared with those presented with the control condition, whereas those who received 4 of the other treatment conditions expressed an older intended age compared with the control condition. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because it was based on a randomized controlled trial with unknown attrition and the authors did not ensure that the groups being compared were similar before the intervention. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the framing of information about the age at which Social Security is collected; other factors are likely to have contributed.",,"Federal retirement benefits Behavioral interventions",Employed,,"United States",2016, "Job insecurity, unemployment insurance and on-the-job search. Evidence from older American workers.","Gutierrez, I. A. (2016). Job insecurity, unemployment insurance and on-the-job search. Evidence from older American workers. Labour Economics, 41, 228-245. doi:10.1016/j.labeco.2016.05.011","Older Workers","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employment-Low-No impacts Employment","Summary: The study examined the impact of the potential wage replacement rate through Unemployment Insurance (UI) on the probability of transitioning to non-employment. The study used a nonexperimental design and data from the Health and Retirement Study (HRS) from 1996–2006 and 2010–2012 to identify workers who expected job loss during the baseline survey and who experienced job transitions by the follow-up survey two years later. The study found no statistically significant relationships between potential wage replacement rates and transitions to non-employment. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the analyses do not sufficiently account for other factors that might contribute to the estimated effects. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the potential wage replacement rate through UI; other factors are likely to have contributed.","Unemployment Insurance (UI)","Older workers' programs Unemployment Insurance","Adult, Older worker, Employed",,"United States",2016, "Psychological frictions and the incomplete take-up of social benefits: Evidence from an IRS field experiment","Bhargava, S., & Manoli, D. (2015). Psychological frictions and the incomplete take-up of social benefits: Evidence from an IRS field experiment. American Economic Review, 105(11), 3489-3529.","Behavioral Insights","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Public benefits receipt-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Public benefit receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the impact of complexity, program information, and stigma on the take-up rate of the Earned Income Tax Credit (EITC) among eligible taxpayers who had not previously claimed the credit. The authors conducted a randomized controlled trial, sending different combinations of materials to likely eligible taxpayers who had not previously claimed the EITC. They used tax data from the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) for tax year 2009. The study found that use of complex materials and a longer worksheet decreased the EITC take-up rate by 6 and 4 percentage points, respectively. Materials that displayed the potential tax credit amount increased the EITC take-up rate by 8 percentage points. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is high because it was based on a well-implemented randomized controlled trial. This means we are confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the experimental mailings, and not to other factors.",,"Behavioral Interventions","Adult, Employed",,"United States",2015, "High-involvement work practices and the opportunities for promotion in the organization","Bonet, R. (2014). High-involvement work practices and the opportunities for promotion in the organization. Industrial Relations, 53(2), 295-324. doi:10.1111/irel.12057","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Employment-Mod/high-Mixed impacts Employment","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the impact of employees’ participation in high-involvement work practices (HIWP) on their expected promotions. The author used regression methods in a nonexperimental analysis to estimate impacts of participating in HIWP, drawing on self-reported data from a survey of for-profit company employees. The study found that employee participation in more HIWP was associated with a greater likelihood of expected promotions. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is moderate because it was based on a well-implemented nonexperimental design. This means we are somewhat confident that the estimated effects are attributable to participation in HIWP, but other factors might also have contributed.","High-Involvement Work Practices (HIWP)","Work based and other occupational training","Adult, Employed",,"United States",2014,https://doi.org/10.1111/irel.12057 "Influential leadership in a diverse retail environment: implications for reducing voluntary employee turnover","Jackson, S. (2014). Influential leadership in a diverse retail environment: implications for reducing voluntary employee turnover. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from ProQuest. Accession No. 1640901590.","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employment-Low-Favorable impacts Employment","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the impact of a retail store management intervention on voluntary employee turnover. The author used a nonexperimental design to compare the rate of voluntary turnover of employees in stores whose management received the intervention with the rate of stores in the same retail chain whose management did not. The author estimated impacts using store administrative data on employee turnovers as well as an employee opinion survey. The study found that treatment group stores experienced a decrease in voluntary employee turnover and that the comparison group stores did not. The author did not test this outcome statistically. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the author did not ensure that the groups being compared were similar before the intervention. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the retail store management intervention; other factors are likely to have contributed.","the retail store management intervention","Other training and education",Employed,,"United States",2014,https://scholarworks.waldenu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?referer=https%3A//scholar… "From the shop floor to the kitchen floor: Maternal occupational complexity and children’s reading and math skills","Yetis-Bayraktar, A., Budig, M., & Tomaskovic-Devey, D. (2013). From the shop floor to the kitchen floor: Maternal occupational complexity and children’s reading and math skills. Work and Occupations, 40(1), 37-64.","Women in Science, Technology, Engineering, & Math (STEM)","Study Type: Descriptive Analysis",,,"Summary: The authors sought to determine whether the complexity of a mother’s occupation (or the quality of employment as defined by its task complexity, autonomy, and authority) affected her 6- to 13-year-old children’s math and reading test scores. The study considered both the complexity of the mother’s occupation when her children were ages 6 to 13 as well as the complexity of her occupation in her children’s earliest years (birth to age 3). The authors analyzed data from the 1984–1996 Panel Study of Income Dynamics and its 1997 Child Development Supplement to determine the relationship between maternal occupational complexity and children’s scores on the Revised Woodcock-Johnson Test of Achievement. The analysis first accounted for traits associated with mothers’ employment status, that is, whether the mother was employed. Assuming the mother was employed, the authors then assessed the association between the complexity of the mother’s occupation and her children’s performance on the reading and math sections of the test. The study found that a one-point increase on the maternal white collar occupational complexity scale was associated with a 2.49-point increase in children’s test scores, whereas a one-point increase on the blue collar occupational complexity scale corresponded to a 1.01-point gain in test scores. Maternal occupational complexity during the child’s first three years also was associated with increased test scores later in life; a one-point gain in white collar occupational complexity in the first three years of the child’s life was associated with a 3.7-point increase in test scores when the child was ages 6 to 13.",,"Other employment and reemployment","Employed, Female, Parent",,"United States",2013, "Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females","Dougherty, T. W., Dreher, G. F., Arunachalam, V., & Wilbanks, J. E. (2013). Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 514-527. [Study 2, Contrast 2: non-senior mentor versus no mentor]","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Earnings and wages-Low-No impacts Earnings and wages","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the role of informal mentoring on annual compensation, as well as the moderating effects of mentor status. The authors investigated similar research questions in other studies, the profiles of which are available [here]. The authors used statistical methods to analyze self-reported data on earnings, mentoring relationships, and employee characteristics collected through questionnaires administered to the software engineering department of a major aerospace manufacturing firm. The study found no statistically significant differences between the earnings of employees with non-senior mentors and those with no mentors. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the authors did not ensure that the groups being compared were similar before the intervention. This means we are not confident that any estimated effects would be attributable to informal mentoring; however, the study did not find any statistically significant effects.",Mentoring,"Other wages and benefits Mentoring","Adult, Employed",,"United States",2013,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.08.001 "Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females","Dougherty, T. W., Dreher, G. F., Arunachalam, V., & Wilbanks, J. E. (2013). Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 514-527. [Study 2, Contrast 1: senior mentor versus no mentor]","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Earnings and wages-Low-No impacts Earnings and wages","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the role of informal mentoring on annual compensation, as well as the moderating effects of mentor status. The authors investigated similar research questions in other studies, the profiles of which are available [here]. The authors used statistical methods to analyze self-reported data on earnings, mentoring relationships, and employee characteristics collected through questionnaires administered to the software engineering department of a major aerospace manufacturing firm. The study found no statistically significant differences between the earnings of employees with senior mentors and those with no mentors. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the authors did not ensure that the groups being compared were similar before the intervention. This means we are not confident that any estimated effects would be attributable to informal mentoring; however, the study did not find any statistically significant effects.",Mentoring,"Other wages and benefits Mentoring","Adult, Employed",,"United States",2013,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.08.001 "Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females","Dougherty, T. W., Dreher, G. F., Arunachalam, V., & Wilbanks, J. E. (2013). Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 514-527. [Study 1, Contrast 2: other mentor versus no mentor]","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Earnings and wages-Low-No impacts Earnings and wages","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the role of informal mentoring on annual compensation, as well as the moderating effects of mentor status and gender. The authors investigated similar research questions in other studies, the profiles of which are available [here]. The authors used statistical methods to analyze self-reported data on earnings, mentoring relationships, and employee characteristics collected through questionnaires administered to graduates of business programs at two large state universities. The study found no statistically significant difference in compensation between study participants with non-senior mentors and those with no mentors. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the authors did not ensure that the groups being compared were similar before the intervention. This means we are not confident that any estimated effects would be attributable to informal mentoring; however, the study did not find any statistically significant effects.",Mentoring,"Other wages and benefits Mentoring","Adult, Employed",,"United States",2013,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.08.001 "Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females","Dougherty, T. W., Dreher, G. F., Arunachalam, V., & Wilbanks, J. E. (2013). Mentor status, occupational context, and protégé career outcomes: Differential returns for males and females. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 83(3), 514-527. [Study 1, Contrast 1: senior male mentor versus no mentor]","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Earnings and wages-Low-Favorable impacts Earnings and wages","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the role of informal mentoring on annual compensation, as well as the moderating effects of mentor status and gender. The authors investigated similar research questions in other studies, the profiles of which are available [here]. The authors used statistical methods to analyze self-reported data on earnings, mentoring relationships, and employee characteristics collected through questionnaires administered to graduates of business programs at two large state universities. The study found that employees with senior mentors who were male earned more compensation than those with no mentors. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the authors did not ensure that the groups being compared were similar before the intervention. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to informal mentoring; other factors are likely to have contributed.",Mentoring,"Other wages and benefits Mentoring","Adult, Employed",,"United States",2013,https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jvb.2013.08.001 "Income tax and older American workers’ job transition into self-employment.","Choi, S. (2012). Income tax and older American workers’ job transition into self-employment. Korea and the World Economy, 13(2), 189-214.","Older Workers","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employment-Low-Unfavorable impacts Employment","Summary: The study examined the effect of a progressive income tax on the likelihood of transitioning to self-employment among older workers. The study used a nonexperimental approach (the exponential hazard model) that compared the likelihood of transitioning from a wage job to self-employment based on the marginal taxes a worker would expect to pay. The author used the data from the Health and Retirement Study in 1992 matched to the Social Security Administration Master Earnings File from 1980 to 1991, which contains W-2 records of earnings from both wage work and self-employment. The study found that a more progressive tax (that is, a tax schedule that increases sharply toward the higher end) or higher marginal tax rates reduces the likelihood of entering self-employment. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the author did not ensure that the groups with higher or lower marginal tax rates were similar before a change in the tax schedule. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to changes in marginal taxes; other factors are likely to have contributed.","Progressive Income Tax","Other employment and reemployment","Adult, Older worker, Employed",,"United States",2012, "What will my account really be worth? An experiment on exponential growth bias and retirement saving","Goda, G.S., Manchester, C.F., & Sojourner, A. (2012). What will my account really be worth? An experiment on exponential growth bias and retirement saving. National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 17927. Cambridge, MA: NBER.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine how general or personalized information on projected retirement savings account balances and annual retirement income affects employees’ retirement savings decisions. A group of university employees were randomly assigned to one of four conditions: Participants in the planning treatment group received general retirement savings information, including enrollment instructions for the university’s voluntary retirement plan. Participants in the balance treatment group received all planning treatment materials plus personalized projections of retirement fund balances and access to an online customization tool. Participants in the income treatment group received all planning and balance treatment materials plus a personalized projection of income during retirement. Participants in the control group received no intervention and were in departments with only control group members. The study analyzed retirement-fund contribution data from the university’s Office of Human Resources using fixed-effects regressions. The study also collected and analyzed additional survey data regarding financial literacy, tolerance for delayed gratification, tendency to procrastinate, and beliefs about saving. Participants in the income treatment group contributed $85.42 more on average, annually, to their retirement savings accounts than did members of the control group. Both this group and those in the balance treatment group exhibited statistically significant increases in the probability of changing their contribution amounts of 1.2 and 1.4 percentage points, respectively. The quality of causal evidence provided in this study is high. This means that we are confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the different levels of the intervention and not to other factors.","Providing General Information and Personalized Savings and Income Projections","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2012,http://www.nber.org/papers/w17927 "A new estimate of the impact of OSHA inspections on manufacturing injury rates, 1998-2005","Haviland, A., Burns, R., Gray, W., Ruder, T., & Mendeloff, J. (2012). A new estimate of the impact of OSHA inspections on manufacturing injury rates, 1998-2005. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 55(11), 964-975.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the effect of OSHA inspections on injuries in single-facility manufacturing firms in Pennsylvania between 1998 and 2005. The study used a regression model to compare the changes in workplace injuries of firms that had received particular types of inspections to those that had not received those types of inspections. The study found that inspections with penalties were associated with a statistically significantly decrease in injuries by an average of 19 to 24 percent annually in the two years after the inspection. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in workplace injuries between firms that received particular types of OSHA inspections and firms that did not receive those types of inspections are attributable to the inspections.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",2012, "The impact of regulatory enforcement and consultation visits on workers’ compensation claims incidence rates and costs, 1999–2008","Foley, M., Fan, J., Rauser, E., & Silverstein, B. (2012). The impact of regulatory enforcement and consultation visits on workers’ compensation claims incidence rates and costs, 1999–2008. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 55(11), 976-990.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the impact of inspections and consultations by Washington State’s Department of Occupational Safety and Health (DOSH) on workers’ compensation claim rates and their associated costs. The study used regression models to compare changes in the claim rates and claim costs across years for firms that had a DOSH inspection or consultation with those that did not. The study found that DOSH activities were associated with statistically significant reductions in workers’ compensation claim rates. The study also found reductions in claims’ costs in firms with DOSH activities, but this was not statistically significant. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we do not have confidence that the effects estimated in this study are attributable to DOSH activities.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workers compensation Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",2012, "Thrift Savings Plan. (2012). Participant behavior and demographics: Analysis of 2008–2012.","Thrift Savings Plan. (2012). Participant behavior and demographics: Analysis of 2008–2012.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Mixed impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine whether changes in the design of the Thrift Savings Plan (TSP) led to changes in federal employees’ participation in and contributions to the Federal Employee Retirement System (FERS). In 2009 and 2010, TSP instituted two major changes, a decrease in the waiting period for eligibility to receive employer matching contributions and automatic enrollment in a Government Securities Investment Fund (G Fund). This study used an interrupted time series design to compare employees’ investment behaviors before and after the TSP design changes. It used data from the TSP record-keeping system and the Office of Personnel Management (OPM). Across the TSP participants analyzed, participation in FERS increased by about 4 percentage points from 2009 to 2012, whereas the average deferral rate decreased slightly from the 2008 level. TSP’s design changes were not associated with how often employees monitored their FERS investments. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low, meaning that we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to TSP design changes. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Immediate Contributions and Automatic Enrollment in the Thrift Savings Plan","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2012, "Investing for retirement: The moderating effect of fund assortment size on the 1/n heuristic","Morrin, M., Inman, J. J., Broniarczyk, S. M., Nenkov, G., & Reuter, J. (2012). Investing for retirement: The moderating effect of fund assortment size on the 1/n heuristic. Fox School of Business Research Paper No. 14-009, 1–38.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: Experiments using U.S. households The study’s objective was to examine whether increases in the number of funds offered in a retirement plan caused investors to allocate their contributions more evenly across all available investment options. The authors administered one survey to a nationally representative sample of U.S. households and two surveys to people from consumer panels. The surveys contained information on hypothetical savings plans that were manipulated to include either a small or large fund assortment size. Participants were instructed to choose the plans in which they would invest and indicate the percentage they would invest in each of the chosen funds. The study found that participants were more likely to allocate hypothetical investments across all available funds when offered a small versus large assortment size. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this portion of the study is moderate because, although the authors controlled for observable characteristics of samples members and there was no evidence that survey versions were systematically assigned to sample members, the Clearinghouse for Labor Evaluation and Research (CLEAR) could not confirm that survey versions were randomly assigned. Analysis of employees’ data  The study’s objective was to determine whether the number of fund options offered by a 401(k) plan influenced the investment behavior of plan members. The authors compared investment behaviors among employees offered 10 or 19 fund options for investment, controlling for employees’ characteristics. The analysis used administrative data on contributions to the defined contribution plan of the Oregon University System. The study used an interrupted time series (ITS) design that analyzed changes in outcomes before and after an increase in the number of available investment options. The analysis demonstrated that offering a larger fund assortment size was associated with a statistically insignificant decrease in the tendency of employees to invest in all available funds and spread invested dollars evenly among chosen alternatives. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means that we are not confident that the estimated effects are solely attributable to fund assortment size; other factors are likely to have contributed.","Informational Interventions for Households and Workers","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2012, "Randomized government safety inspections reduce worker injuries with no detectable job loss","Levine, D., Toffel, M., & Johnson, M. (2012). Randomized government safety inspections reduce worker injuries with no detectable job loss. Science, 336(6083), 907-911.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of random OSHA inspections on firms’ injury-related outcomes and performance. To do this, the authors used a regression model to compare changes over time in firms randomly chosen to receive inspections to changes in uninspected firms. The study found that the number of injuries and the cost of injuries declined after OSHA inspected a firm. In addition, the study found no evidence that the firms OSHA inspected had lower employment, sales, or credit ratings or were less likely to continue to operate than firms OSHA did not inspect. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is moderate because the study used a well-conducted nonexperimental design. This means we have confidence that the estimated effects are attributable at least in part to OSHA inspections. However, other factors not accounted for in the study could also have contributed to the estimated effects.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workers compensation Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",2012, "Small cues change savings choices","Choi, J., Haisley, E., Kurkoski, J., & Massey, C. (2012). Small cues change savings choices. National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 17843. Cambridge, MA: NBER.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to gauge the effect of savings cues on 401(k) contribution rates by exposing randomly selected groups of employees to different hypothetical savings rates or amounts. The authors analyzed the relationship between exposure to savings rate cues and savings choices among employees at an unnamed U.S. technology company who contributed less than the maximum yearly amount to their retirement savings plans prior to the intervention. Overall, the authors found that participants adjusted their 401(k) contribution rates in response to cues. Those who were cued with the maximum contribution amount were 5.7 percent more likely than those who received no cue to contribute at maximal levels. The quality of causal evidence provided in this study is low because it is a randomized controlled trial with unknown attrition and unknown equivalence of the analytic groups. This means we are not confident the estimated effects are attributable to savings cues; other factors are likely to have contributed.","Savings Cue","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2012,http://www.nber.org/papers/w17843 "Boon or bane?: 401(k) loans and loan provisions","Wenger, J., & Weller, C. (2011). Boon or bane?: 401(k) loans and loan provisions. Available at http://ssrn.com/abstract=1941411.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the impact of having a borrowing option in a defined contribution (DC) pension plan on contribution rates and total debt. The authors used data from the United States Federal Reserve’s triennial Survey of Consumer Finance to estimate ordinary least squares (OLS) and instrumental variable (IV) regression models. Both models control for demographic characteristics and financial situation. The authors found that having a borrowing option significantly increased both contribution rates and debt. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the borrowing option in DC pension plans. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Borrowing Options in Defined Contribution Pension Plans","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2011,http://ssrn.com/abstract=1941411 "$100 bills on the sidewalk: Suboptimal investment in 401(K) plans","Choi, J., Laibson, D., & Madrian, B. (2011). $100 bills on the sidewalk: Suboptimal investment in 401(K) plans. The Review of Economics and Statistics, 93(3), 748-763.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Mod/high-No impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study examined the impact of providing information about employer contribution matches and penalty-free withdrawal rules on 401(k) contribution rates. These features created an opportunity for certain employees to increase their retirement savings without decreasing take-home pay. Even though this enabled employees to make a profit at very little cost, many eligible employees did not choose to exploit this opportunity. Employees were randomly assigned to receive a survey embedded with explicit information on the opportunity or a control survey without the information. The authors used survey data linked to administrative data obtained from Hewitt Associates, a large benefits administration and consulting firm. The study found no statistically significant relationship between the treatment condition and future 401(k) contribution rates. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is high. This means we are confident that any estimated effects of the intervention would be attributable to the intervention itself, and not some other factor.","the Provision of Information on a Missed ""Free Lunch""","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2011, "Misunderstanding savings growth: Implications for retirement savings behavior","McKenzie, C., & Liersch, M. (2011). Misunderstanding savings growth: Implications for retirement savings behavior. Journal of Marketing Research, 68, S1–S13.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Attitudes-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Attitudes","Summary: Experiments Using Undergraduate Students This study used three experiments in a controlled setting to examine undergraduate students’ intuitions of retirement savings growth, understanding of investment concepts, and motivation to invest toward their retirement after entering the workforce.1 The authors administered three surveys consisting of hypothetical situations followed by exercises asking respondents to compute an omitted element of the savings function (for example, the monthly deposit amount or rate of return required to accumulate a given amount of savings at retirement). Each experiment randomly assigned participants to receive or not receive some form of aid (for example, a calculator) or additional information (for example, savings growth charts) to complete the exercises. The first study found that participants tended to severely underestimate projected savings account balances at retirement and overestimate the rates of return and monthly deposit amounts required to ensure such balances. The second study found that when provided with information on exponential growth, participants were more motivated to save for retirement; however, in the third study there was no statistically significant relationship between information on exponential growth and motivation to save for retirement. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this portion of the study is high. This means we are confident that any differences in responses were a result of the various treatment conditions of the three experiments. Analysis of Employees’ Survey Data The study further aimed to determine whether showing employees how much money they would have at retirement—based on current annual contributions, the current account balance, and return rates—can motivate them to increase savings, compared with showing employees current account balances only. The authors analyzed differences in employees’ interest in changing current levels of retirement savings, measured on a seven-point Likert scale, comparing those who were provided only their estimated 401(k) account balance at retirement and those who were shown only their current balance. The analysis demonstrated that showing workers actual account projections (in addition to the current balance) motivated them to save more. The quality of causal evidence presented in this portion of the study is also high. This means we are confident that showing employees their estimated 401(k) account balances at retirement increased the percentage of employees who wanted to save more each month.","Informational Interventions for Undergraduates and Workers","Employer provided retirement benefits","Adult, Employed",,"United States",2011, "Would people behave differently if they better understood Social Security? Evidence from a field experiment","Liebman, J., & Luttmer, E. (2011). Would people behave differently if they better understood Social Security? Evidence from a field experiment. National Bureau of Economic Research working paper no. 17287. Cambridge, MA: NBER.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement, Behavioral Insights","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence",,"Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the impact of providing information about Social Security rules and benefits on labor force participation, knowledge of Social Security, and claiming of Social Security benefits. Workers nearing retirement age were randomly assigned into either the treatment group, which was sent an informational brochure about Social Security and invited to a 15-minute web tutorial on Social Security provisions, or to the control group, which was not offered this information but could seek other publicly available information about Social Security. The authors measured outcomes through a follow-up survey conducted 13 months after random assignment. The study found that, on average, members of the treatment group were more likely to work for pay in the last month and were more likely to be aware that Social Security benefits were based on the number of years with the highest earnings, compared with the control group. However, there were no statistically significant differences between the two groups on any other outcomes related to earnings and employment, Social Security benefit receipt, or understanding Social Security rules. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is moderate because it was based on a well-conducted randomized controlled trial with high attrition and adequate control variables. This means we are somewhat confident that the estimated effects are attributable to providing information about Social Security provisions, but other factors might also have contributed.",,,Employed,,,2011,http://www.nber.org/papers/w17287.pdf "Simplification and saving","Beshears, J., Choi, J., Laibson, D., & Madrian, B. (2010). Simplification and saving. Cambridge, MA: National Bureau of Economic Research.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s key objective was to examine the impact of Quick Enrollment, an option enabling individuals to more quickly and easily enroll in a retirement savings plan, on plan enrollment rates and contribution levels at two firms in the United States (companies A and B). The study also examined the impact of Easy Escalation, an option enabling individuals to quickly increase their retirement-plan contribution levels to a predetermined percentage of pay, on contribution rates. The analysis was based on data on enrollment in and contributions to retirement plans from Hewitt Associates, a benefits administration and consulting firm. The study used an interrupted time series (ITS) design, analyzing changes in outcomes before and after the implementation of Quick Enrollment or Easy Escalation. The study found that Quick Enrollment increased enrollment rates by 10 to 20 percentage points and that Easy Escalation increased the percentage of employees contributing to their savings plans at the higher, predetermined rate specified by Easy Escalation.  The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to Quick Enrollment or Easy Escalation. Other factors are likely to have contributed to the changes in enrollment and contribution rates.","the Quick Enrollment and Easy Escalation","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,"Health care and social assistance, Manufacturing","United States",2010, "The impact of training on the frequency of internal promotion of employees and managers","West, L. S. (2010). The impact of training on the frequency of internal promotion of employees and managers. (Doctoral dissertation). University of North Texas Digital Library. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc30526/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf [Manager sample]","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employment-Low-No impacts Employment","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the relationship between formal training and promotion for managers. The author investigated similar research questions in another study, the profile of which is available [here]. The other study examined the relationship between formal training and promotion for employees who were not managers. The author used statistical methods in a nonexperimental analysis to estimate impacts of hours of formal training, drawing on archival survey data from the 1996–1997 the National Organizations Survey. The study found no statistically significant relationships between formal training and managers’ promotions. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the author did not account for existing differences of managers in organizations that offered various hours of formal training. This means we would not be confident that the estimated effects would be attributable to formal training; other factors would have been likely to have contributed. The study did not, however, find statistically significant relationships.","the formal training","Other training and education",Employed,,"United States",2010,https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc30526/m2/1/high_res_d/disserta… "The Employment Retention and Advancement project: How effective are different approaches aiming to increase employment retention and advancement? Final impacts for twelve models [TAAG—Medford]","Hendra, R., Dillman, K-N., Hamilton, G., Lundquist, E., Martinson, K., Wavelet, M., Hill, A., & Williams, S. (2010). The Employment Retention and Advancement project: How effective are different approaches aiming to increase employment retention and advancement? Final impacts for twelve models. Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families. [TAAG—Medford]","Low-Income Adults","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Earnings and wages-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Earnings and wages Employment-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Employment Public benefits receipt-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Public benefit receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to estimate the impact of post-employment job supports on former and current public assistance recipients’ employment and benefits receipt outcomes after three years. The Medford site was one of four in Oregon that participated in the Employment Retention and Advancement (ERA) project. The authors randomly assigned 1,164 employed single parents who were former or current public assistance recipients to either a treatment group that received services from Medford’s ERA project (Transition, Advancement, and Growth, or TAAG), or a control group that could participate in other programs in the community. The authors analyzed data from Unemployment Insurance (UI), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), and Food Stamps administrative records and a survey administered 12 months after random assignment. The study found that those assigned to the Medford ERA project earned, on average, $41 more per week when surveyed one year after random assignment than those in the control group. However, treatment group members were also 6.7 percentage points more likely to have ever received Food Stamps at the three-year follow-up than those in the control group. The quality of causal evidence provided in this study is high because it was based on a well-conducted randomized controlled trial. This means we are confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the Medford ERA project and not to other factors.","the Employment Retention and Advancement Project, Medford","Job search assistance and supportive services Other employment and reemployment Unemployment Insurance","Low income, Parent, Employed",,"United States",2010,http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED514699.pdf "The role of inspection sequence in compliance with the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration’s (OSHA) standards: Interpretations and implications","Ko, K., Mendeloff, J., & Gray, W. (2010). The role of inspection sequence in compliance with the US Occupational Safety and Health Administration's (OSHA) standards: Interpretations and implications. Regulation and Governance, 4(1), 48-70.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Compliance-Low-Mixed impacts Compliance","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of the sequence and timing of OSHA inspections on compliance with OSHA standards, as measured by the number of violations cited during an inspection. The study used a regression model to compare the number of OSHA violations cited during inspections based on their order during the sample period—for example, during the second compared with the first inspection during the sample period—and for which different lengths of time had passed since the previous inspection. Examining firms inspected multiple times, the study reported that the total number of violations cited in the second inspection was lower than the number of violations cited in the first. In these firms, the number of violations cited was larger for every additional year elapsed since the previous inspection. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. Although it provides interesting descriptive information, the study does not provide evidence of a causal effect of inspections, or their timing, on violations.","OSHA Enforcement Activities",Inspections,Employed,,"United States",2010, "Choice proliferation, simplicity seeking, and asset allocation","Iyengar, S., & Kamenica, E. (2010). Choice proliferation, simplicity seeking, and asset allocation. Journal of Public Economics, 94, 530-539.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Attitudes-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Attitudes","Summary: Laboratory experiments This study used two laboratory experiments to examine the relationship between the number of choices offered and decision making.  Individuals were asked to choose between risky gambles and sure payoffs, with the number of choices randomly determined. The authors found that when individuals were presented with a larger number of choices, they tended to choose simpler payoff options. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this portion of the study is high. This means we are confident that an increase in the number of choices an individual is given causes him or her to choose a less complex payoff option. Analysis of 401(k) data  The study further aimed to determine whether the number of fund options offered by a 401(k) plan influenced the share of assets allocated to a given class of funds (for example, equities or bonds) by plan members. The authors analyzed differences in portfolio allocations based on the number of funds available using regression analysis, controlling for other 401(k), firm, and employee characteristics. The analysis demonstrated that as the number of investment options increased, people tended to allocate more of their 401(k) savings to money market and bond funds at the expense of equity funds. The quality of causal evidence presented in this portion of the study is low. This means we cannot be confident that an increase in the number of funds offered in a retirement plan causes an increase in the share of funds allocated to money market and bond funds and a concurrent decrease in the share of funds allocated to equities.","Changing the Number of Risky Choices","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2010, "The impact of training on the frequency of internal promotion of employees and managers","West, L. S. (2010). The impact of training on the frequency of internal promotion of employees and managers. (Doctoral dissertation). University of North Texas Digital Library. https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc30526/m2/1/high_res_d/dissertation.pdf [Employee sample]","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employment-Low-Favorable impacts Employment","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the relationship between formal training and promotion for employees who were not managers. The author investigated similar research questions in another study, the profile of which is available [here]. The other study examined the relationship between formal training and promotion for managers. The author used statistical methods in a nonexperimental analysis to estimate impacts of hours of formal training, drawing on archival survey data from the 1996–1997 National Organizations Survey. The study found a statistically significant and positive relationship between typical hours of formal training and the frequency of promotions for employees. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the author did not account for existing differences of employees in organizations that offered various hours of formal training. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to formal training; other factors are likely to have contributed.","the formal training","Other training and education",Employed,,"United States",2010,https://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc30526/m2/1/high_res_d/disserta… "The Employment Retention and Advancement project: How effective are different approaches aiming to increase employment retention and advancement? Final impacts for twelve models [PROGRESS—Eugene]","Hendra, R., Dillman, K-N., Hamilton, G., Lundquist, E., Martinson, K., Wavelet, M., Hill, A., & Williams, S. (2010). The Employment Retention and Advancement project: How effective are different approaches aiming to increase employment retention and advancement? Final impacts for twelve models. Washington, DC: Office of Planning, Research and Evaluation, Administration for Children and Families. [PROGRESS—Eugene]","Low-Income Adults","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Employment-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Employment Public benefits receipt-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Public benefit receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to estimate the impact of post-employment job supports on former welfare recipients’ employment and benefits receipt outcomes after three years. The Eugene site was one of four in Oregon that participated in the Employment Retention and Advancement (ERA) project. The authors randomly assigned 1,179 employed single parents who were former Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) program participants to either a treatment group that received employment retention services from Eugene’s Progress Towards Retention, Opportunities, Growth, Enhancement and Self-Sufficiency (PROGRESS) program or a control group that could participate in other employment-related programs in the community. The authors analyzed data from Unemployment Insurance (UI), Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF), and Food Stamps administrative records and a survey administered 12 months after random assignment. The study found that those in the PROGRESS group were 7 percentage points less likely than control group members to be employed in the third year after random assignment and 6.6 percentage points less likely to have been employed in every quarter of that year. The quality of causal evidence provided in this study is high because it was based on a well-conducted randomized controlled trial. This means we are confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the Eugene ERA program and not to other factors.","the Employment Retention and Advancement Project, Eugene","Other employment and reemployment Unemployment Insurance","Employed, Low income, Parent",,"United States",2010,http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED514699.pdf "What kinds of injuries do OSHA inspections prevent? ","Haviland, A., Burns, R., Gray, W., Ruder, T., & Mendeloff, J. (2010). What kinds of injuries do OSHA inspections prevent? Journal of Safety Research, 41(4), 339-345.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine whether OSHA inspections that resulted in penalties or citations prevented specific types of workplace injuries. The study used a regression model to compare the changes in the workplace injuries in single-facility manufacturing firms that had received an inspection that resulted in a penalty or citation to changes in firms that had not received a penalty or citation. The group of firms that had not received a penalty or citation combined two types of firms: firms that had not been inspected and firms that received inspections that did not result in a penalty or citation. The study found that inspections that imposed penalties were associated with statistically significant reductions in the rates of all types of injuries examined. Among the specific citations studied, only citations for violating the general standard for personal protective equipment were associated with reduced injury rates. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that OSHA inspections that resulted in penalties or citations caused the reductions in workplace injuries.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",2010, "New ways to make people sSave: A social marketing approach","Lusardi, A., Keller, P. A, & Keller, A. M. (2009). New ways to make people sSave: A social marketing approach. National Bureau of Economic Research Working Paper 14715. Cambridge, MA: NBER.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to assess the effect of a retirement planning aid on encouraging new hires at a large institution to enroll in a supplemental retirement account (SRA). The authors presented results from both an initial pilot test and a full-scale implementation using a modified version of the planning aid. The authors compared the mean 30- and 60-day enrollment rates of cohorts of new hires using administrative data provided by the institution. The final version of the planning aid increased SRA enrollment considerably relative to the control group, with more than 27 percent of new hires enrolling within 30 days and more than 41 percent enrolling within 60 days, compared with 7 and 29 percent, respectively, in the control group. Results were similar during the pilot intervention phase. The quality of causal evidence provided in this study is low. This means that we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the planning aid; other factors are likely to have contributed.","a Retirement Planning Tool","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2009,http://www.nber.org/papers/w14715 "Reducing the complexity costs of 401(k) participation through Quick Enrollment","Laibson, D., Choi, J., & Madrian, B. (2009). Reducing the complexity costs of 401(k) participation through Quick Enrollment. Developments in the Economics of Aging, 57-82.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of a simplified 401(k) enrollment procedure called Quick Enrollment on plan participation through three trials at two anonymous companies (two trials at company A and one at company B). Quick Enrollment offered employees the choice of joining a 401(k) plan at a fixed contribution rate, investing in prespecified funds. Hewitt Associates, a consultancy and benefits management company, provided data on 401(k) plan participation, compensation, and other demographic characteristics for employees at two anonymous firms. For company A, year-end cross-sectional data from 2002 and 2003 were available for all employees in addition to a September 1, 2004, snapshot. For company B, only year-end data for 2002 and 2003 were available. Plan enrollment rates for new employees rose after each Quick Enrollment implementation, with an enrollment increase of 14 percentage points at company A and 2 percentage points at company B. The quality of causal evidence provided in this study is low. This means that we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to Quick Enrollment; other factors are likely to have contributed.","Quick Enrollment","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2009, "Mental accounting in portfolio choice: Evidence from a flypaper effect","Choi, J., Laibson, D., & Madrian, B. (2009). Mental accounting in portfolio choice: Evidence from a flypaper effect. American Economic Review, 99(5), 2085-2095.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Unfavorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study examined the impact of requiring employees at a large, U.S.-based company to actively choose the asset allocation for an employer’s matching 401(k) contributions, rather than automatically allocating such funds to the employer’s stock. The analysis was based on administrative data on employees’ demographic characteristics and 401(k) contributions. The study analyzed changes in outcomes that occurred when a firm began requiring employees to choose the funds to which the employer’s 401(k) matching contributions would be allocated.  The study found that allowing employees to choose the asset allocation of their matched contributions reduced contributions to employer stock by 64 percentage points in the first year of the new policy. The study also found that employees’ own contribution allocations did not change significantly after the policy was enacted, suggesting that employees made their personal allocation decisions without considering the employer’s match allocation. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the active-decision requirement for employer matched contributions. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Active Portfolio Choice for Employer Matching Contributions","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2009, "Optimal defaults and active decisions","Carroll, G., Choi, J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B., & Metrick, A. (2009). Optimal defaults and active decisions. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 124(4).","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study examined the impact of requiring employees to actively decide whether to enroll in a 401(k) plan, called active-decision enrollment, on newly hired employees’ 401(k) enrollment decisions and contribution rates at a large U.S.-based company. Active-decision enrollment was compared with standard enrollment, which required employees to opt in to a 401(k) plan. The analysis was based on administrative data on enrollment in and contributions to a retirement plan. The study analyzed changes in outcomes before and after the change from active-decision to standard enrollment. The study found that requiring employees to actively opt in or out of savings plans increased 401(k) participation and contribution rates, compared with standard enrollment. The study also found that employees who participated in the 401(k) plan under the active-decision enrollment policy contributed less, on average, than participants under standard enrollment.  The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the company’s active-decision enrollment policies. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Active-Decision 401(k) Enrollment","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2009, "Effects of public policies on the disposition of pre-retirement lump-sum distributions: Rational and behavioral influences","Burman, L., Coe, N., Dworsky, N., & Gale, W. (2008). Effects of public policies on the disposition of pre-retirement lump-sum distributions: Rational and behavioral influences. CentER Discussion Paper Series No. 2008-94.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine whether tax policies that differently frame the rollover of lump-sum distributions (LSDs) from defined-contribution retirement plans into tax-preferred funds affected rollover behavior. The authors investigated two tax reforms, the first in 1986 and the second in 1993. The 1986 reform levied an additional tax of 10 percent on LSDs (framed as a penalty) that were not rolled over into tax-preferred funds. The 1993 reform required LSDs to provide an automatic rollover option and increased tax withholding rates on cash LSDs. The authors used data from the 1993 Current Population Survey Employee Benefit Supplement to analyze the effects of the 1986 tax reform and data from the 1992–2004 Health and Retirement Study to assess the effect of the 1993 tax reform. Treating the tax rate on LSDs as a penalty in the 1986 reform framework increased LSD rollovers by 16 to 32 percentage points for the average individual in the study. The 1993 reforms led to a 10 to 13 percentage point increase in rollovers for the average individual in the study. The quality of causal evidence provided in this study is low. This means that we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the intervention alone; other factors are likely to have contributed.","the 1986 Tax Reform Act and 1993 Addendum","Federal retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2008, "The return to firm investments in human capital","Almeida, R., & Carneiro, P. (2008). The return to firm investments in human capital. World Bank Social Protection and Labor Discussion Paper No. 0822.","Low-Income Adults","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Productivity-Low-Favorable impacts Productivity","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the returns to firms’ investments in training for their workers. The authors used data from an annual survey conducted by the Portuguese Ministry of Employment, which is a mandatory survey for all Portuguese firms with at least 100 employees, to determine the internal rate of return to the firm of an additional hour of training per employee. The study found that increasing the amount of training per employee by 10 hours per year led to an increase in current productivity of 0.6 percent. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the instruments used in the estimation approach were weak, as described by the authors. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the training provided to the employees; other factors are likely to have contributed.",,"Work based and other occupational training",Employed,,International,2008,http://siteresources.worldbank.org/SOCIALPROTECTION/Resources/SP-Discussion-pap… "Individual account investment options and portfolio choice: Behavioral lessons from 401(K) plans","Brown, J., Lang, N., & Weisbenner, S. (2007). Individual account investment options and portfolio choice: Behavioral lessons from 401(K) plans. National Bureau of Economic Research working paper No. 13169. Cambridge, MA: NBER.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study aimed to determine whether the number of fund options offered within a given asset class (for example, domestic equities) by a 401(k) plan influences the types of investments made by plan members. The authors analyzed differences in portfolio allocations based on the number of funds available in these asset classes using regression analysis, controlling for other 401(k) and firm characteristics. The analysis demonstrated that as the number of investment options within an asset class increase, individuals tend to allocate more of their 401(k) savings to funds within that class. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This low rating means that we are not confident that an increase in the number of funds offered within a class causes the increase in the share of funds allocated to assets in that class. We can only say that the two variables of interest are positively correlated.","Varying the Number of Risky Choices","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2007,http://www.nber.org/papers/w13169 "Choice architecture and retirement savings plans","Benartzi, S., Peleg, E., & Thaler, R. (2007). Choice architecture and retirement savings plans. Los Angeles, Ca. SSRN working paper.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The report’s objective was to examine the impact of choice architecture—that is, aspects of a savings plan’s structure and enrollment process—on 401(k) savings decisions. The authors discussed five original, observational studies. Two studies conducted regression analyses using survey data. One used an interrupted time series design and data from Vanguard on employees at 13 companies. Two additional studies conducted regression analyses using Vanguard data on 1.5 million participants in 1,830 of Vangaurd’s defined contribution retirement plans. The study receiving a moderate rating (study 5) found that members of retirement plans that offer retirement date funds, relative to members of retirement plans that offer risk-based funds or neither, held comparatively more equity when they were younger and comparatively less equity when they were older. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is moderate because study 5 was a quasi-experimental design with adequate controls. We must note, however, that the remaining four studies provide causal evidence rated as low. The overall moderate evidence rating means we are somewhat confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the employees’ access to asset allocation funds, but other factors might also have contributed. In the case of the remaining four studies, however, we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the interventions analyzed. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","the Choice Architecture of Retirement Savings Plans","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2007,http://164.67.163.139/Documents/areas/fac/accounting/Benartzi_ChoiceArchitectur… "Employee development, commitment, and intention to turnover: A test of “employability” policies in action","Benson, G.S. (2006). Employee development, commitment, and intention to turnover: A test of “employability” policies in action. Human Resource Management Journal, 16(2), 173–192.","Apprenticeship and Work-Based Training","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employment-Low-Favorable impacts Employment","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the relationship between employees’ intent to leave (that is, employees’ stated intentions to leave the firm in the next year) and their participation in on-the-job training and company-sponsored training classes. The author used a statistical model to examine the association between employees’ participation in on-the-job and company-sponsored training classes and their intention to leave the firm in the next year, using data from an employee survey. The study found that participation in on-the-job training was associated with a reduction in employees’ intent to leave, but there was no significant relationship between participation in company sponsored training and intent to turnover. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low because the author did not ensure that groups being compared were similar before the intervention. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the work-based training; other factors are likely to have contributed.","the on-the-job training","Work based and other occupational training","Employed, STEM professional","Professional, scientific, and technical services","United States",2006,https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1748-8583.2006.00011.x "Regulatory federalism and workplace safety: Evidence from OSHA enforcement, 1981–1995","Bradbury, J. (2006). Regulatory federalism and workplace safety: Evidence from OSHA enforcement, 1981–1995. Journal of Regulatory Economics, 29(2), 211–224.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine if workplace fatalities were lower in states with federal or state enforcement of Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) regulations. The study used a regression model to compare changes over time in the workplace fatalities of states with federal or state enforcement of OSHA regulations. The study found that states with self-enforcement of OSHA regulations had lower fatality rates relative to states with federal OSHA enforcement; this difference was statistically significant. The quality of evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in workplace fatalities between states with self-enforcement and those with federal enforcement of OSHA regulations are attributable to the method of enforcement.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",2006, "The declining effects of OSHA inspections on manufacturing injuries, 1979-1998","Gray, W., & Mendeloff, J. (2005). The declining effects of OSHA inspections on manufacturing injuries, 1979-1998. Industrial and Labor Relations Review, 58(4), 571-587.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of federal OSHA inspections in manufacturing establishments on workplace injuries during three separate time periods: 1979–1985, 1987–1991, and 1992–1998. The study used a regression model to compare the changes in workplace injuries in manufacturing establishments that had received an inspection within the past four years to those in establishments that had not received inspections. The study found that OSHA inspections were associated with statistically significant reductions in lost-workday injuries of 10 percent in 1979–1985 and 4 percent in 1987–1991, but had no statistically significant effect on these injuries in 1992–1998. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in workplace injuries between firms that did and did not receive OSHA inspections are attributable to the inspections.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",2005,http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1140&context=… "Are empowerment and education enough? Underdiversification in 401(k) plans","Choi, J., Laibson, D., & Madrian, B. (2005). Are empowerment and education enough? Underdiversification in 401(k) plans. Brookings Papers on Economic Activity 2005, (2), 151-213.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-No impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study examined factors that can affect diversification from employer stock in 401(k) plans. The study analyzed the impact of loosened diversification restrictions and media coverage of highly publicized events on 401(k) holdings in employer stock. The authors assessed factors affecting diversification in 401(k) plans through four studies. The first was an interrupted time series analysis of employer stock holdings at an unnamed company. The other three studies explored the impact of media attention to the Enron, WorldCom, and Global Crossing bankruptcies through regression analysis. All analyses were based on transaction-level and annual data from 1997 to 2003 from Hewitt Associates, a benefits administration company. The authors attributed only a 2.4 percentage point decline in employer stock holdings to news coverage of the Enron, WorldCom, and Global Crossing bankruptcies across the entire Hewitt 401(k) Index. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. In the first study, the authors did not account for prior trends in the outcome variable and in the second through fourth studies they did not provide information a reader would need to assess changes in sample composition. This low rating means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to any of the interventions studied, whether loosened diversification restrictions or media coverage of the Enron, Global Crossing, and WorldCom bankruptcies. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Factors Promoting 401(k) Diversification","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2005, "Inside the black box: How do OSHA inspections lead to reductions in workplace injuries?","Mendeloff, J., & Gray, W. (2005). Inside the black box: How do OSHA inspections lead to reductions in workplace injuries? Law and Policy, 27(2), 219-237.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effects of OSHA inspections that resulted in penalties or citations on the types of injuries workers suffered. The study used a regression model to compare the changes in workplace injuries of manufacturing firms that had received an inspection that resulted in a penalty or citation to those that had not received a penalty or citation. The group of firms that had not received a penalty or citation combined two types of firms: firms that had not been inspected and firms that received inspections that did not result in a penalty or citation. The study found that OSHA inspections that resulted in a penalty were associated with statistically significant decreases in lost-workday injuries. Among the specific citations studied, citations for the standards for general requirements for personal protective equipment and general machine guarding were associated with statistically significant reductions in some types of lost-workday injuries. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that OSHA inspections that resulted in penalties or citations caused the reductions in workplace injuries.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",2005, "For better or for worse default effects and 401(k) savings behavior","Choi, J.J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B.C., & Metrick, A. (2004). For better or for worse default effects and 401(k) savings behavior. National Bureau of Economic Research, 81-126","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s key objective was to examine the impact of automatic 401(k) plan enrollment on enrollment rates and contribution levels at three firms in the United States. The analysis was based on data on enrollment in and contributions to retirement plans from the companies themselves. The study used an interrupted time series (ITS) design, analyzing changes in outcomes before and after the implementation of automatic enrollment. The study found that automatic enrollment increased participation rates. In addition, automatic enrollment led to a larger percentage of participants investing at the plan’s default contribution rate. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the companies’ automatic enrollment policies. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Automatic Enrollment","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2004, "Long-term ethylene oxide exposure trends in U.S. hospitals: relationship with OSHA regulatory and enforcement actions","LaMontagne, A., Oakes, J., & Turley, R. (2004). Long-term ethylene oxide exposure trends in U.S. hospitals: Relationship with OSHA regulatory and enforcement actions. American Journal of Public Health, 94(9), 1614-1619.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Mixed impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine differences in hospital worker exposures to ethylene oxide (EtO) after the implementation of the 1984 and 1988 OSHA EtO standards. The authors used a random effects model to examine changes over time in hospital worker exposures to EtO. The study reported a steady, statistically significant decline in EtO exposures for the first several years after each OSHA standard was set. The quality of evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that changes in worker EtO exposures over time are attributable to OSHA’s implementation of EtO standards.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Other health and safety Safety",Employed,"Health care and social assistance","United States",2004,http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1448503/pdf/0941614.pdf "Save More Tomorrow™: Using behavioral economics to increase employee saving","Thaler, R., & Benartzi, S. (2004). Save More Tomorrow™: Using behavioral economics to increase employee saving. Journal of Political Economy, 112(S1), S164-S187.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study aimed to determine whether a retirement savings plan that automatically increased 401(k) contributions whenever an enrolled employee’s salary increased improved savings rates among employees. The authors compared savings rates among employees who opted to participate in the plan with savings rates among employees who declined to join the plan. Across the three experimental sites, average savings rates tended to increase, with higher increases for program participants than for nonparticipants. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This low rating means that we are not confident that the difference in savings rates between program participants and nonparticipants results from participation in the savings plan.","Save More Tomorrow™","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2004, "Evaluation of OSHA’s impact on workplace injuries and illnesses in manufacturing using establishment-specific targeting of interventions: programmed inspections vs. high hazard notification letters","ERG. (2004). Evaluation of OSHA’s impact on workplace injuries and illnesses in manufacturing using establishment-specific targeting of interventions: programmed inspections vs. high hazard notification letters. Final report. Lexington, MA: Author.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the impact of two types of notifications sent by the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA)—those with and without subsequent inspections—on workplace injuries. The study used a regression model to analyze annual changes in workplace injuries in manufacturing firms that received OSHA notifications of high existing injury rates and/or inspections in the current or past two years. The study found that firms that received notifications without a subsequent inspection experienced a statistically significant decline in injury rates. Firms that received a notification and an inspection experienced larger declines. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that OSHA notifications and inspections caused the reductions in workplace injuries.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",2004, "Saving for retirement on the path of least resistance","Choi, J., Laibson, D., Madrian, B., and Metrick, A. (2004). Saving for retirement on the path of least resistance. Working paper. Cambridge, MA.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study examined the impact of different 401(k) plan designs on employees’ saving behavior at several U.S.-based firms. The analysis was based on administrative data provided by each company. The study used five analyses—one based on an interrupted time series (ITS) design, one based on a randomized controlled trial (RCT), and three quasi-experimental regression analyses—to estimate impacts on 401(k) participation and contribution rates. The study found that employees’ decision making was influenced by defaults, such as automatic enrollment and automatic disbursements from 401(k) plans. It also found that the gap in 401(k) participation rates between new employees facing a mandatory waiting period for eligibility and those with immediate eligibility disappeared shortly after the former group gained eligibility. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the various 401(k) program designs evaluated in this study. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","401(k) Plan Design Changes","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2004,http://www.hks.harvard.edu/fs/bmadria/Documents/Madrian%20Papers/Saving%20for%2… "The role of information and social interactions in retirement plan decisions: Evidence from a randomized experiment","Duflo, E., & Saez, E. (2003). The role of information and social interactions in retirement plan decisions: Evidence from a randomized experiment. Quarterly Journal of Economics, 118(3), 815–842.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: High Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the impact of receiving information about tax-deferred retirement accounts (TDAs) on enrollment in the accounts. The study used a randomized controlled trial (RCT) at a large university. Departments within the university were randomly assigned into two groups. In the treatment group, nonfaculty employees were randomly selected to receive or not receive a letter offering a $20 incentive to attend an employee-benefits fair, at which information on TDAs was provided. In the other group of departments, no employees received a letter. The study examines both the effect of receiving the letter or being in a department in which some people received the letter. Under most model specifications, the study found that people in both treatment groups had higher enrollment in TDAs, as measured 4.5 and 11.0 months after the fair. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is high. This means we are confident that the estimated effects of the intervention are attributable to the intervention itself, and not some other factor.","Incentives for Attending a Benefits Fair","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2003, "How much choice is too much? Contributions to 401 (k) retirement plans","Iyengar, S.S., Huberman, G., & Jiang, W. (2003). How much choice is too much? Contributions to 401 (k) retirement plans. Pension Research Council working paper.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Unfavorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: This study’s objective was to examine whether the number of fund options offered by a 401(k) retirement plan influenced employees’ decisions to enroll in the plan. The authors analyzed employees’ participation rates in 401(k) plans using administrative data provided by an investment management company and regression analysis, controlling for both employee- and plan-level characteristics. The analysis demonstrated that as the number of fund options increased, employees became less likely to enroll in a 401(k) plan. Adding one fund to the list of investment options was associated with a decrease in participation of 0.15 to 0.20 percentage points. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means that we are not confident that the increase in the number of funds offered caused the decrease in 401(k) enrollment. Other factors are likely to have contributed to the observed relationship.","the Number of Fund Choices","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",2003, "Workplace Health and Safety Regulations: Impact of Enforcement and Consultation on Workers’ Compensation Claims Rates in Washington State","Baggs, J., Silverstein, B., & Foley, M. (2003). Workplace health and safety regulations: Impact of enforcement and consultation on workers’ compensation claims rates in Washington State. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 43(5), 483-494.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study examined the effects of Washington’s Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) State Plan (named WISHA) inspections and consultations on workers’ compensation claim rates for employers in Washington State. The study used a difference-in-differences model to compare the changes in compensable claim rates for employers that had received WISHA inspections or consultations in the previous year with those that had not received the specific WISHA intervention. The study found that WISHA enforcement activity was associated with a statistically significant reduction in workers’ compensation claims rates for fixed-site industries (for example, manufacturing) but not nonfixed-site industries (for example, construction). The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the relative reductions in the compensable claim rates between employers that experienced WISHA enforcement activities or consultations and employers that did not were attributable to the WISHA enforcement activities or consultations.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workers compensation Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",2003,http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/ajim.10209/abstract "Assessing OSHA performance: New evidence from the construction industry","Weil, D. (2001). Assessing OSHA performance: evidence from the construction industry. Journal of Policy Analysis and Management, 20(4), 651-74.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Compliance-Low-Favorable impacts Compliance","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) inspections on compliance behavior among construction contractors from 1987 to 1993. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides interesting historical context. The study also contains a descriptive analysis that examined whether OSHA regulatory standards were related to causes of injuries and fatalities (analysis not included in this summary). The study used regression models to analyze the change in compliance probability between the first and subsequent inspections for a given contractor and for a given contractor at a specific work site. The study found that the probability of citation decreased with each additional inspection, with the largest difference between the first and second inspections. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. Although the study provides interesting descriptive information, it does not provide evidence of a causal effect of reinspections on compliance behavior.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Safety",Employed,Construction,"United States",2001, "The power of suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) participation and savings behavior","Madrian, B. C., & Shea, D. F. (2001). The power of suggestion: Inertia in 401(k) participation and savings behavior. The Quarterly Journal of Economics, 116(4), 1149-1187.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Mixed impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study examined the impact of two simultaneously implemented changes in the 401(k) plan of a large, Fortune 500 company: (1) automatic enrollment into the plan immediately after hire (a change from requiring employees to opt in to the plan to requiring them to opt out); and (2) removing the one-year tenure requirement for employees to participate in the 401(k) plan, enabling immediate contributions for employees with less than one year of tenure at the firm. The study used employee-level data from the company. It used an interrupted time series design to compare the participation and contribution rates of those hired before the company’s 401(k) plan changes to the behaviors of those hired after the changes were implemented. The authors compared employees subject to changes (1) and (2) to those subject to change (2) only and those subject to change (2) only to those subject to neither change. Employees subject to both immediate contributions and automatic enrollment had higher 401(k) participation rates and lower 401(k) contribution rates than those subject to immediate contributions only. Employees subject to immediate contributions had only slightly higher participation rates compared with those not subject to either plan change. The quality of causal evidence presented in this report is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated effects are attributable to the company’s changes to its 401(k) plan design. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Allowing Immediate 401(k) Contributions and Automatic Enrollment","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,"Large business","United States",2001, "Effect of state workplace safety laws on occupational injury rates","Smitha, M., Kirk, K., Oestenstad, K., Brown, K., & Lee, S. (2001). Effect of state workplace safety laws on occupational injury rates. Journal of Occupational Environmental Medicine, 43(12), 1001-1010.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of four types of mandatory state workplace safety interventions on occupational injury rates in manufacturing industries. The study used a regression model to compare differences in injury rates for industries in which higher or lower percentages of the workforce were affected by the four mandatory safety requirements. The study found that the mandatory safety committee requirements were associated with statistically significant decreases in injury rates; the other three initiatives were not. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in injury rates between industries in states with the mandatory safety laws and industries in states without these laws are attributable solely to the laws.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",2001, "The effect of OSHA lead exposure in construction standard on blood lead levels among iron workers employed in bridge rehabilitation","Levin, S., Goldberg, M., & Doucette, J. (1997). The effect of the OSHA lead exposure in construction standard on blood lead levels among iron workers employed in bridge rehabilitation. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 31(3), 303–309.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of the Lead Exposure in Construction Standard imposed by the Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA), which was introduced in May 1993, on the blood lead levels of iron workers employed in the renovation of a large, lead-painted, steel bridge in New York City in 1993 and 1994. The study compared the blood lead levels of iron workers in 1993 and 1994, before and after the introduction of OSHA’s Lead Exposure in Construction Standard. The study found that there was no significant difference in the maximum blood lead levels of iron workers from 1993 to 1994, but there was a decline in the increment in blood lead levels, defined as the difference between the maximum and minimum levels. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that any differences in blood lead levels of iron workers before and after the introduction of the OSHA Lead Exposure in Construction Standard were attributable solely to the introduction of the standard.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Safety Workplace injury",Employed,Construction,"United States",1997, "Falls in Construction: Injury Rates for OSHA-Inspected Employers Before and After Citation for Violating the Washington State Fall Protection Standard","Nelson, N., Kaufman, J., Kalat, J., & Silverstein, B. (1997). Falls in construction: Injury rates for OSHA-inspected employers before and after citation for violating the Washington State Fall Protection Standard. American Journal of Industrial Medicine, 31(3), 296-302.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the effect of receiving an OSHA citation for violating the Washington State Fall Protection Standard on injury claim rates among construction employers. The study used a regression model to compare injury claim rates for construction employers that had received a citation for violating the Washington State Fall Protection Standard between 1991 and 1992 to rates for those that had not received a citation for violating this standard during this time period. The study found that being cited for violating the falls in construction standard was associated with a statistically significant increase in the likelihood of experiencing a subsequent reduction in injury claim rates compared to construction employers that were not cited. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in the likelihood of experiencing a reduction in injury rates between employers that received a citation for violating the Washington State Fall Protection Standard and employers that did not receive such a citation are attributable to the citations.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Other health and safety Workers compensation Workplace injury",Employed,Construction,"United States",1997, "Does regulatory enforcement work? A panel analysis of OSHA enforcement","Gray, W., & Scholz, J. (1993). Does regulatory enforcement work? A panel analysis of OSHA enforcement. Law & Society Review, 27(1), 177-213.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the effect on injury rates of OSHA inspections that resulted in penalties during the 1980s. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. The study used a regression model to compare the percentage change in injury rates when firms had received inspections that resulted in penalties during the past four years and when the same firms had not received penalties during the past four years. The study found that inspections that resulted in penalties were associated with statistically significant reductions in lost workday injuries (by 22 percent) and lost workdays (by 20 percent) during the three years following the inspection. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the changes in injury rates within firms when they received inspections that resulted in penalties are attributable solely to these penalties.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",1993, "Re-estimating OSHA’s Effects: Have the data changed?","Ruser, J. & Smith, R. (1991). Re-estimating OSHA’s effects: Have the data changed? Journal of Human Resources, 26(2), 212-235.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-No impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the effect of OSHA inspections and inspection procedures on injury rates in manufacturing firms between 1980 and 1985. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. For their main analysis, the authors used a regression model to compare differences in injury rates for manufacturing plants that received inspections in March and April (“early”) and those that received inspections in November and December (“late”) of the same year. The study found that, relative to late OSHA inspections, early OSHA inspections were not associated with a statistically significantly reduction in injury rates within the year of inspection. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the estimated relationships in this study are the result of OSHA inspections and procedures.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",1991, "Longitudinal patterns of compliance with Occupational Safety and Health Administration health and safety regulations in the manufacturing sector","Gray, W., & Jones, C. (1991). Longitudinal patterns of compliance with Occupational Safety and Health Administration health and safety regulations in the manufacturing sector. Journal of Human Resources, 26(4), 623-653.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Compliance-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Compliance","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of past Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) inspections on the number of violations found in subsequent inspections. The study used a regression model to compare the number of hazards found at the first, second, and higher-order inspections conducted by OSHA from 1972 to 1983. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during the period of this study, the study provides interesting historical context. The study found that the number of workplace hazards cited decreased with each additional inspection. The largest drop occurred from the first to the second inspections. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is moderate because the study used a well-implemented nonexperimental design. This means we have confidence that the effects estimated in this study are attributable at least in part to OSHA inspections. However, as with any nonexperimental design, other factors not accounted for in the study could also have contributed to the estimated effects.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Safety",Employed,,"United States",1991, "Are OSHA Health Inspections Effective? A Longitudinal Study in the Manufacturing Sector ","Gray, W., & Jones, C. (1991). Are OSHA health inspections effective? A longitudinal study in the manufacturing sector. Review of Economics & Statistics, 73(3), 504.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Compliance-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Compliance","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of past Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) health inspections on the number of violations found in subsequent inspections. The study used regression models to compare the number of hazards found at the first, second, and higher-order inspections conducted by OSHA from 1972 to 1983. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during the period of this study, the study provides interesting historical context. The study found that the number of workplace hazards cited decreased with each additional OSHA inspection. The largest drop occurred between the first and second inspections. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is moderate because the study used a well-conducted nonexperimental design. This means we have confidence that the estimated effects are attributable at least in part to OSHA inspections. However, as with any nonexperimental design, other factors not accounted for in the study could also have contributed to the estimated effects.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Safety",Employed,,"United States",1991, "The effect of OSHA records-check inspections on reported occupational injuries in manufacturing establishments","Ruser, J., & Smith, R. (1988). The effect of OSHA records-check inspections on reported occupational injuries in manufacturing establishments. Journal of Risk and Uncertainty, 1(4), 415–435.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Mixed impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine whether OSHA’s records-check procedure—which was introduced in 1981 in states with federal OSHA enforcement and targeted inspections based on reports of past injuries—caused manufacturing plants to underreport injuries. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did around the time of the records-check procedure’s implementation, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. The authors used several approaches, the strongest of which compared the percentage change in lost-workday injury rates in the years when the plant’s state had a records-check procedure and the years when the state did not have this procedure. The study found no statistically significant differences between the percentage change in reported injury rates in plants in states with the records-check procedure and plants in states without this procedure. However, plants in risky industries in records-check states reported a statistically significant 4.7 percent reduction in injury rates. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that any changes in reported injuries within plants in records-check states or in risky industries in records-check states could be attributed to the records-check procedure.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",1988, "The impact of Occupational Safety and Health regulations, 1973-1983","Viscusi, W. (1986). The impact of Occupational Safety and Health regulations, 1973-1983. RAND Journal of Economics, 17(4), 567–580.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Mixed impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine changes in the effects of OSHA inspections and penalties on injury rates in manufacturing industries between 1973 and 1983. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. The study used a regression model to examine the changes in injury rates in manufacturing industries associated with higher and lower rates of OSHA inspections and penalties during the prior two years. The study found that the evidence of the effectiveness of OSHA inspections and penalties in reducing injuries was mixed, and the effects of OSHA enforcement activities on most outcomes varied over time. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in injuries within industries are attributable to the inspections or penalties.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",1986, "Safety Regulation and Workplace Injuries","Curington, W. (1986). Safety regulation and workplace injuries. Southern Economic Journal, 53(1), 51.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of the introduction of OSHA regulation in 1971 on the severity and frequency of workplace injuries in manufacturing industries in New York. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. The study used a regression model to examine the change in the frequency and severity of injuries from the period 1964 to 1970 compared with 1971 to 1976, which represent the time periods before and after the implementation of OSHA standards. The study found that the implementation of OSHA standards was not associated with a statistically significant reduction in the average frequency or the severity of all injuries. The study found a statistically significant association between implementation of OSHA standards and a reduction in ""struck by machine"" injuries. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in injuries from the period 1964 to 1970 compared with 1971 to 1976 are attributable to the introduction of OSHA standards.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",1986, "Direct and indirect effects of regulation: A new look at OSHA’s impact","Bartel, A., & Thomas, L. (1985). Direct and indirect effects of regulation: A new look at OSHA’s impact. Journal of Law and Economics, 28(1), 1–25.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Compliance-Low-Favorable impacts Compliance Health and safety-Low-No impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine the effect of Occupational Safety & Health Administration (OSHA) inspections on noncompliance with OSHA standards and the effect of noncompliance on lost-workday injuries in the 1970s. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during that period, this study provides historical context for later changes made to the program. The study used a structural model to examine differences in the injury rates and noncompliance for industries that received higher rates of OSHA inspections. The study did not find a statistically significant relationship between noncompliance with OSHA standards and workplace injuries. The quality of the causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in injury rates among industries with higher rates of noncompliance are attributable solely to noncompliance or that differences in noncompliance rates among industries with higher rates of inspections are attributable to inspections.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",1985, "An assessment of OSHA’s recent effects on injury rates","McCaffrey, D. (1983). An assessment of OSHA’s recent effects on injury rates. Journal of Human Resources, 18(1), 131-146.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Mod/high-No impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of OSHA inspections on injury rates in manufacturing and construction firms from 1976 to 1978. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. The author used a regression model to compare the differences in injury rates of manufacturing and construction firms that received inspections in March and April (“early”) with those that received inspections in November and December (“late”). The study found that, relative to late OSHA inspections, early OSHA inspections were not associated with a statistically significantly reduction in injury rates within the year of inspection. The quality of causal evidence for some analyses presented in this study is moderate because the analyses used a well-conducted nonexperimental design. This means we have confidence that these findings provide some evidence that OSHA inspections had no effect on injury rates.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workplace injury",Employed,"Construction, Manufacturing","United States",1983, "Worker injuries: The effects of Workers’ Compensation and OSHA inspections","Robertson, L., & Keeve, J. (1983). Worker injuries: The effects of Workers' Compensation and OSHA inspections. Journal of Health Politics, Policy and Law, 8(3), 581-597.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employment-Low-Favorable impacts Employment Health and safety-Low-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study had two objectives: (1) to examine the effect of OSHA citations on injuries (method 1) and (2) to examine the effect of changes in OSHA inspections on changes in days of work lost because of injuries (method 2). Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during the study period, the study provides historical context for the program. Method 1 used a regression model to compare injuries across three firms from 1973 to 1980. Method 2 used a different regression model to compare changes in work days lost because of injuries from 1975 to 1976 to changes in OSHA inspections during the same period, using data at the industry-by-state level. The study found that firms had 35.8 fewer injuries in the years in which they received a citation; however, citations in past years were not significantly related to current year injuries. One additional OHSA inspection was associated with a 2.8 day reduction in the number of work days lost because of injuries.  The quality of causal evidence presented by both methods in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the differences in workplace injuries or lost work days are attributable to OSHA citations or inspections.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",1983, "The Impact of OSHA Inspections on Manufacturing Injury Rates","Smith, R (1979). The Impact of OSHA Inspections on Manufacturing Injury Rates. Journal of Human Resources, 14(2),  145-170.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Moderate Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Mod/high-Favorable impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effect of OSHA inspections on injury rates in manufacturing firms in 1973 and 1974. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. The authors used a regression model to compare the differences in injury rates of firms that received inspections in March and April (“early”) and those that received inspections in November and December (“late”). The study found that in 1973, firms receiving early inspections had significantly lower injury rates that year than those that were inspected later in the year. However, in 1974, firms inspected early and late in the year had similar injury rates. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is moderate because the study used a well-conducted nonexperimental design. This means we have confidence that the effects estimated in this study are attributable at least in part to OSHA inspections. However, as with any nonexperimental study design, other factors not accounted for in the study could also have contributed to the estimated effects.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Workplace injury",Employed,Manufacturing,"United States",1979, "The impact of Occupational Safety and Health regulation","Viscusi, W. (1979). The impact of Occupational Safety and Health regulation. The Bell Journal of Economics, 10(1), 117–140.","OSHA Enforcement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Health and safety-Low-No impacts Health and safety","Summary: The study’s objective was to examine the effects of OSHA inspections and penalties at the industry level on workplace injuries between 1972 and 1975. Although OSHA no longer operates as it did during this period, this study provides historical context for changes that were later made to the program. The study used a regression model to examine differences in injury rates for industries and years with higher rates of OSHA inspections and penalties, relative to industries and years with lower rates of OSHA inspections or penalties. The study found that OSHA inspections and proposed penalties were not statistically significantly related to injuries. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This means we are not confident that the study’s findings provide causal evidence of the effect of inspections on injuries.","OSHA Enforcement Activities","Inspections Other health and safety Workplace injury",Employed,,"United States",1979,http://law.vanderbilt.edu/files/archive/009_Impact_of_Occupational_Safety.pdf "Investor behavior and the purchase of company stock in 401(k) plans—the importance of plan design","Liang, N., & Weisbenner, S. (2002). Investor behavior and the purchase of company stock in 401(k) plans—the importance of plan design. National Bureau of Economic Research working paper 9131. Cambridge, MA: NBER.","Behavioral Finance: Retirement","Study Type: Causal Impact Analysis","Causal Evidence Rating: Low Causal Evidence","Employer benefits receipt-Low-Favorable impacts Employer benefits receipt","Summary: The study’s objective was to determine whether 401(k) plan characteristics, including the number of total investment options offered by a 401(k) plan and the requirements for whether employers’ matching contributions had to be allocated to employer stock, influenced the percentage of employees’ 401(k) plan contributions allocated to employer stock. The authors analyzed differences in portfolio allocations based on the number of funds available and other key plan characteristics using data from Compustat and Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) forms and regression analyses, controlling for firm-fixed effects. The number of investment options and the percentage of assets allocated to employer stock were negatively correlated. Further, employees at firms that required employer matching contributions to be allocated to employer stock allocated a larger share of assets to employer stock than those at other firms. The quality of causal evidence presented in this study is low. This low rating means that we are not confident that differences among plan characteristics caused changes in the share of funds allocated to employer stock. Other factors are likely to have contributed.","Number of Fund Choices and Restrictions on Employer Matching Contributions","Employer provided retirement benefits",Employed,,"United States",,